AMERICA: POST WWII TO PRESENT

The United States of America, post-WWII, was a unique intertwining of foreign policy and domestic economy. The primary problem posed in the international

arena was the rise of the United Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), formally Russia. This military concern helped develop a strong domestic economy.

Because Russia was attacked in 1941, Great Britain and the US decided to join forces with Joseph Stalin and the USSR. In the European theater it was hoped that with Russia on the East and the U.S. and Britain on the West, Hitler’s German forces would be squeezed into submission.

There was some suspicion that Stalin would take advantage of the western allies, but Hitler had promised to destroy democracy in Britain and German forces had to be destroyed.

The inherent problem in a Russian-Western alliance was the future of Europe after the war. Russia had been on a land-grab to create a “greater Russia” since the 1600’s. The US purchased Alaska in 1867 to stop Russia from moving into North America.   Communists took over the Russian government in 1917. Communism was committed to spreading, and controlling, as much land as possible. It was obvious that the two efforts, combined by Russian leaders, was a threat to Europe and poorer, more oppressed, parts of the world.

Tensions could be seen developing during the war, especially when Harry Truman took the presidency after Franklin D. Roosevelt’s death in April of 1945. This small business supporter had little of the faith and confidence in Stalin that was held by his predecessor.

WWII ended in Europe in May of 1945. Stalin promised FDR and Winston Churchill he would enter the war and attack Japan from the East within 90 days. The war ended, August 14 but surrender not signed until September 2, prior to that commitment. Stalin wanted to help “reconstruct” Japan as a democracy. The US and Britain argued since Russia had not entered the war, it could not enter Japan to expand communism.

While tensions continued to grow between Truman and Stalin, they did not erupt into the Cold War until 1949. The primary allies, the US, Great Britain, the USSR, and France, divided Germany into four parts, each taking control of their section with the capitol of Berlin, about 50 miles inside of the German sector, divided in the same manner.

In 1947, Stalin made growing tensions more dangerous by suddenly announcing that all roads and railroads into Berlin would be closed. Winter was coming and there would be no way for the other three allies to feed, clothe, and warm their representatives in that city.

A study of the agreements signed noted the air routes were not discussed, and, therefore, open. The Berlin Air Lift lasted almost a year. All three western allies participated in bringing more than enough supplies into West Berlin. In 1948, Stalin announced the roads and rails were now open. But by that time anger and frustration prevented renewed friendship with the USSR.

Western troops were brought to Berlin, well armed and well trained. Their guns were pointed outward, toward Russian-controlled Germany. Russian guns were pointed inward, toward the western allies. It was this narrow line between the troops in Germany that started the Cold War.

Each side tried to gain independent, or “third world” support at the expense of the other, but there was no “war” between them. That was particularly important because the US and Britain had developed the atomic bomb by 1945 and Russia by 1949. Neither sided wanted to see devastation of the other. This was a war of words between capitalism and communism not bombs.

The US and the West decided to use a policy of containment, formulated by advisors to the president, the goal of which was to contain communism where it was, but not allow it to spread. Franklin Roosevelt had already allowed the Soviets to move troops into central Europe. Stalin had promised free elections. When Truman asked when they would take place, Stalin replied they would not, if they were free elections, the USSR would lose.

In 1949 China went communist. Much to America’s surprise and chagrin, one quarter of the world’s population was added to the communist numbers. It was even more important that the containment policy be maintained.

There were two small wars fought in the Cold War. The Korean and Vietnamese Wars were fought be communist factions in each country that wanted to take control. Power is an aphrodisiac to many, it certainly was in these situations.

With the Korean War, the Truman Doctrine described American policy throughout the Cold War. “The attack upon Korea makes it plain beyond all doubt that Communism has passed beyond the use of subversion to conquer independent nations and will now use armed invasion and war.” As a consequence of this action, the US military will respond.

The Korean War began in 1950 with a surprise attack by the North Koreans (Korea was divided by allied powers) and Chinese regular military.   Negotiations drug on for over a year. Discussions of peace ended when Dwight Eisenhower was elected in 1952 and flew to Korea to conclude this war. Ike told the North, either you sign these terms or I go home and start sending atomic bombs over here. The North had a choice. They could believe the general who planned the attack to destroy German forces–or not. They wisely chose to stop fighting. It was only learned several years ago that the North did not sign the agreement nor have they attacked South Korea since.

The Vietnamese War was fought against unification efforts of Ho Chi Mihn and pro-communist forces from the North trying to unify Vietnam, and as a consequence, takeover the grain-rich and prosperous South. A debate rages among historians today, was he a nationalist or a communist. He was undoubtedly both. He argued for a united country, even though communists argue there are no national boundaries and all workers will share equally. Interestingly, the elites, whereever they control, have seen to it that the average citizen receives minimal while the goodies go to the top. Once Vietnam was united, the Northern leaders killed more than 2 million South Vietnamese. This was a typical behavior of the communists as well as totalitarian regimes.

The French had colonized Vietnam, but it fell to the Japanese in 1941. Ho Chi Minh had worked with the U.S. trying to force the Japanese to leave. After the WWII France announced it was taking over again. Ho Chi Minh went to Washington to ask Truman for assistance in maintaining independence for Vietnam, but was told France was too important an ally to offend. He then went to Moscow and secured communist assistance. The end of the Vietnamese war concluded in 1973 with the US troops’ departure. Congress was to fund the work of the Army of the Republic of Viet Nam [ARVN] for defense of the South but stopped as soon as Nixon resigned. The money was then reallocated to welfare domestically.

During this quarter of a century several important international associations developed. In 1945, immediately after Japan’s defeat, the United Nations [UN] was established. It was to include all the nations of the world. Divided into several organs, the Secretariat included the administrative heads and the general organization of the association, headed by the Secretary-General. The General Assembly conducts the ordinary business. It considers all members to be of equal influence and power.

The Security Council (a discussion of which is found further along in this blog) is made up of a limited number of members. Beginning with 11, there are now 15. The two important powers held by this council are economic punishment and military action. Five members—the U.S., Britain, France, Russia and China—hold the absolute veto. Any time one of these powers exercises the absolute veto, all discussion on it stops. There is a tension between these five members that have continued to this day.

In addition to the UN, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed by the US, Canada, Britain, and western Europe in 1949 in response to the heavily armed and trained Soviet troops in Germany. This military alliance guaranteed if one member is attacked, all would fight against the aggressor. It has proved so effective that it continues despite Communist Russia’s end to the Cold War in 1992 when the country militarily and economically fell apart.

There was economic concern about western Europe immediately after WW II. The shortage of food and jobs brought votes for communism, especially in France and Italy. That was not why the US fought the war. Ultimately an economic plan was proposed to all who fought in the war, including the USSR. They would get together and decide what they wanted to do to restore their economies, how much it would cost, and how it would be repaid. The US did want to approve the plans before money, $12 billion, was provided. (Sadly, today the US could not offer such a loan, we do not have enough money in our treasury. Inflation is not our friend.)

Stalin forbad the USSR and the “Soviet Satellites” in central Europe from participating. Western Europe took rapid advantage of the offer. Western Europe bounced back to normal economies quickly. They had repaid their loans by 1956.

John F. Kennedy (JFK), strongly anti-communist, followed Ike in the presidency. Again, tensions between the US and the USSR tightened. Three events occurred shortly after Kennedy took office. First, Bay of Pigs fiasco occurred in 1961. In December 1960, after JFK won the presidency, Ike called him into the oval office. He explained the US had planned to assist Cuban expatriates in an overthrow of Fidel Castro in Cuba. The US had trained them and would provide air cover for the invaders. If JFK did not want to participate, Ike would cancel the whole effort.   JFK came back the next week, after checking with his military advisers, and agreed he would continue the plans.

The details of the day of attack at the Bay of Pigs are still classified. Apparently someone, name unknown, changed the orders and cancelled the US air cover the US air cover without telling the expatriates.  The attackers were arrested as they came on shore. The US paid millions to have them released and brought back to the US.

In June, approximately six weeks after the Bay of Pigs Invasion, JFK agreed to meet with Nikita Khrushev, leader of the Soviet government, in Europe. His aids warned Kennedy that he needed more experience before taking on Khrushev, a known tough negotiator. JFK insisted he would be just fine. We do not know what was said in the meeting, there were just the two leaders and their immediate aides; the transcript is still classified. Apparently, according to one American aide, the president flinched at something said. Khrushev left the meeting in the superior position. Six weeks latter, the Russians began to build a wall around the Western-controlled portion of Berlin. The residents were sealed off from the West. The wall did not come down until a general revolt of Soviet control in 1989.

In an effort to retain some dignity, Kennedy decided, since no one planned on a large war again, the US needed specialized warriors to put down small wars. The Green Berets were formed. To test the effectiveness of the fighting methods, they were sent to a small “brush war,” to become known as the Vietnamese War.

Domestically, the US and it’s middle class were very successful. And why not? Until 1950 the US produced 75% of all goods made in the world. That percentage went down slowly but the US was not challenged until the late 1960’s.

Eisenhower kept the economy going strong by introducing the instate-highway program. This interstate roadway connected all the states with a modern means of transportation. Not only did it encourage travel but was an enormous boost for trucking products from region to region.

Labor disputes and anti- and pro-communist arguments took up the first ten years post-war, then the civil rights movement began to develop. It actually began in 1943 with the first lunch counter sit-ins started by black sailors. FDR rapidly called the Secretary of the Navy and said get them out of here. “I’m not going to have a civil rights movement while I’m fighting a world war.”

Efforts were dampened after that for several years, but picked up again with the civil rights marches, sit-ins, and strikes in Southern states in the 1950’s, led by the Reverend Martin Luther King and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). The US Supreme Court’s decision in Brown v. the Board of education of Topeka, Kansas, 1954, ordered an end to segregated schools. The movement for racial equality had begun. Martin Luther King was murdered in 1968 and with him the emphasis on peaceful action. Now a much more violent group, the Black Panthers, took over the fight for racial equality.

Upon JFK’s assignation in November 1963, Lyndon Johnson took the presidency. He ran a two-prong program during his ten years in office. First, he was going to eliminate poverty and guarantee civil rights for all. This War on Poverty, or Great Society, saw the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, guaranteeing the right to vote, the Economic Opportunity Act, 1964, guaranteeing equal employment, and Medicare/Medicaid, 1965, providing medical care for the poor and the elderly.

His second concern was US military action in Vietnam. When Ike left office, the US had 750 armed troops in South Vietnam to train the army. When JFK died, there were 16,000 US troops in that area. At the height of the War, 1968, Johnson had over 500,000 US troops. He said he would win at any cost, as has been stated by historians, he never thought to ask what that cost would be.

The war turned from one not known by the average American, to one supported by that American, and finally, despised by that American. The election of 1968 was one of ending that war. Over 28,000 Americans were killed, as many injured, not to mention the South Vietnamese. Richard Nixon won the presidency with the promise he would end the war.

Johnson’s national economy looked strong as he began his presidency, but costly governmental programs and a continuing war soon tore the economy to pieces. In addition to that by the late ‘60s the US was in a social revolution. The college-aged children led the revolt, but were soon run over in the challenge by their parents.   The war, the economy, the social changes all happened at the same time. No one was prepared for them. The 1970’s saw the culmination of these changes.

Richard Nixon was a strong anti-communist, as were his predecessors; but as a Quaker, he too believed in social justice. He continued the country’s leftward tilt with the first quota plan enforced by the federal government. To work on federally-funded projects, a union had to have a specific number of minorities in the workforce. The union also had to have a percentage of apprentices who could work up to full membership.

His real success was in the environmental field. The Environmental Protection Act of 1969 set up the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). The Clean Air Act of 1970 provided standards for clean air around the country. It was controlled by the EPA. The Clean Water Act, 1971, provided for clean water throughout the nation, to be controlled by the EPA.

It was Nixon who first visited China as president. It was he who signed the Vietnamese Peace Treaty in 1973 promising to remove US troops but to continue to provide supplies to the South Vietnam army. As soon as Nixon resigned over lying about knowledge of an illegal act, Congress stopped payments to South Vietnam and funded US social projects.

The Cold War ended somewhere between 1989 and 1992, depending on what is being measured. It was certainly over by 1992 because the USSR military left Germany. There was no longer threat of a major war.

As communism died away a new foe, Radical Islamism, entered the scene. We are currently in the mists of terrorism, but not sure of where it comes. An estimated 10% of Muslims are radical, but 90% are friendly. This leaves the Christian West unsure of what to expect next. Samuel Huntington’s “The Clash of Civilizations,” certainly seems to have predicted these tensions.

Once the inflation of the 1970’s, caused by the Vietnamese War, was deflated, the US economy went along well until 2007. The public had learned it could acquire a house for almost no money. When the mortgages had to be repaid, large numbers of people were defaulted upon. Investment firms were bankrupt, large banks were in trouble, and the public were without savings. Large numbers of people lost their jobs, with no hope for employment soon. We are still recovering from this “Great Recession.”

Modern America faces an uncertain future. This uncertainty is without doubt what the US has experienced consistently since its inception.

 

Copyright 2016   by Janet Newlan Bower